How many land use categories, sub-categories, classifications, definitions, can you think of? So many departments have their own definitions for different purposes. Let us try and bring it all together and learn the power of mind mapping tools in the process. This chapter is part of a series on Hierarchical Spatial Planning Framework

This chapter is specific to Indian scenario. Still, some sections might be relevant to other regions and countries as well.

The agriculture departments of various states in India have been maintaining land use statistics with a predominant focus on agriculture as a land use. These statistics have been maintained for long under a nine-fold classification as prescribed by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Five of these nine categories are related to agriculture, one for forests, one for grazing & pasture lands, one for wasteland and one for all other non-agricultural land uses.

Also, under multiple schemes of development as well as National Urban Information System (GIS based platform), the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (Erstwhile Ministry of Urban Development) has recommended multiple land uses based on scales of planning for urban land use planning purposes.

Complications tend to arise in regional planning, as the definition (boundaries) of forests, eco-sensitive zones, wastelands, waterbodies, wetlands etc. may not be same when land use categories and subcategories and statistics are considered across different departments/ministries. Also, waterbodies, industries, infrastructure, grasslands, etc. do not generally find a separate mention in terms of land use at region level.

In view of above, it is considered important that a comprehensive but standardised set of land use categories is considered for representation at state/regional level, which can be conveniently broken into subcategories depending on scale of planning.

The land use categories and subcategories are further explored in detail under following major heads:

• Forests
• Grasslands, grazing lands/pastures
• Water Bodies
• Agriculture
• Industries
• Mines
• Infrastructure
• Settlements

These are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Forests

In common parlance forests in India tends to refer to two aspects:

• Forest Cover
• Protected Areas

Forest Cover

The Forest Survey of India brings out a biennial India State of Forest Report (ISFR). The report for 2017, defines the term ‘Forest Cover’ as all those lands more than one hectare in area with a tree canopy of more than 10 per cent irrespective of land use, ownership and legal status. It may include orchards, bamboo, palm etc.

However, at the same time ‘Recorded Forest Areas’ (or simply ‘Forest Area’) are defined as all those geographic areas recorded as ‘Forests’ in government records. Recorded Forest areas largely consist of Reserved Forests (RF) and Protected Forests (PF), which have been constituted under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act 1927. Besides reserved forests and protected forests, the recorded forest area may also include all such areas that have been recorded as forests in revenue records or have been constituted so under any state or local law.

It is important to note that according to ISFR definitions, the recorded forest areas may even have blanks and areas with tree densities less than ten per cent. These may include degraded lands, wetlands, rivers, riverbeds, creeks in mangroves, snow covered areas, glaciers, alpine pastures, cold deserts, grasslands etc. However, as per the definition of forest cover, such areas are excluded from assessment of forest cover. Further, there are areas outside the recorded forest areas which satisfy the definition of forest cover, for example plantations on private lands, community lands, roadside, railways, and canals, rubber, tea and coffee plantations etc. Such areas are also included in the forest cover assessment.

It is important to note that a detailed assessment of forest cover in recorded forest area is not possible for all states in India as only limited states (23 states) have geo-coded boundaries of the same.

In the ISFR 2019, the term Green Wash has been added to forest cover. Green Wash is the area shown in green colour in the Survey of India Topographic sheets, representing the forest area at the time of survey for preparing such topographic sheets. These areas have been used to substitute the Recorded Forest Areas in states where geocoded digitised boundaries are not available.

It is important to undertake the above-mentioned assessment to determine the state of forests and land use in each state. This can enable the decision support system of the state in determining, forest lands that can be diverted to plantation works as well as other than plantation works leading to various types of asset creation. It can also assist in assessing the compensatory afforestation land that needs to be planned for.

The forest and/or tree cover is classified under following categorises according to the India State of Forest Report 2019

• Very Dense Forest
• Moderately Dense Forest
• Open Forest
• Scrub
• Non-Forest (Trees Outside Forests)

Protected Areas

India is one of the 17 mega diverse countries of the world in terms of biodiversity. With only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, 16.7 per cent of the world’s human population and 18 per cent livestock, India contributes about 8 per cent of the known global biodiversity, thereby, putting enormous demands on our natural resources.

India’s conservation planning is based on philosophy of identifying and protecting representative wild habitats across all ecosystems. Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list. The Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change acts as a guiding torch dealing with policies and planning on wildlife conservation, while the State Forest Departments are vested with the responsibility of implementation of national policies and plans.

As ecosystems and living creatures do not recognise human political borders, India has adopted the concept of Transboundary Protected Areas for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors. There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.

Major Concerns in Management of Protected Areas

Conservation and management in India are currently facing a myriad of complex challenges that are both ecological and social in nature. Issues such as habitat loss/fragmentation, overuse of biomass resources in the context of biotic pressures, increasing human-wildlife conflicts, livelihood dependence on forests and wildlife resources, poaching and illegal trade in wildlife parts and products, need for maintaining a broad base of public support for wildlife conservation exemplify and characterise the contemporary wildlife conservation scenario in India. The government and the civil society are taking several measures to address these issues. Planned interventions to improve synergies and coordination amongst a wide array of stakeholders are being undertaken to meet the challenges of conserving India’s diverse wilderness resources.

Regulations/ Laws relating to Protected Areas

The protected areas are constituted and governed under the provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which has been amended from time to time, with the changing ground realities concerning wildlife crime control and management of protected areas. Implementation of this Act is further complemented by other Acts viz. Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau of the Central Government supplements the efforts of state governments in wildlife crime control through enforcement of CITES and control of wildlife crimes having cross-border, interstate and international ramifications. In order to strengthen and synergise global wildlife conservation efforts, India is a party to major international conventions viz. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, UNESCO-World Heritage Committee and Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

In this context, it is important to note that certain additional areas might be considered as eco-sensitive areas wherein conservation efforts are more in terms of restrictions in terms of interventions of development. Such areas may be part of an existing protected area or beyond its boundary thereof.

Click here to view the mind map for Forest categorisation.

Grasslands, Grazing Lands/Pastures

Grasslands are highly dynamic ecosystems encompassing all natural and semi-natural pastures, woodlands, scrub, and steppe formations dominated by grasses and grass like plants. The have closely co-evolved with grazing ungulates and played major role in the history of farming. Grasslands provide vital ecosystem services such as water and climate regulation in support of agriculture, biogeochemical cycling, carbon storage, cultural and recreational services. Grasslands, grazing lands and pastures are the backbone of livelihoods for all pastoral communities.

The grass cover in India is classified among following five broad types of grass cover found in India:

• Sehima – Dichanthium (Grasslands which are spread over the Deccan Plateau, Chota Nagpur Plateau and Aravalli with an elevation range of 300 – 1200m above mean sea level)
• Dichanthium – Cenchrus – Lasiurus (Grasslands which are spread over northern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Aravalli ranges, south western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Punjab with an elevation range of 150 – 300m above mean sea level)
• Phragmites – Saccharum – Imperata (Grasslands which are spread over Gangetic plains, Brahmaputra Valley and the plains of Punjab with an elevation range of 300 – 500m above mean sea level)
• Themeda – Arundinella (Grasslands which are spread over foothills and lower hills of Manipur, Assam, northern parts of West Bengal, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in the elevation range of 350 – 2000m above mean sea level)
• Temperate – Alpine (Grasslands which are spread across the Himalayan States and the temperate high-altitude areas of Nagaland, Manipur and Western Ghats above an altitude of 2000m above mean sea level)

It may however be worthwhile to consider the following categorisation and its sub categorisation of grasslands from planning perspectives. This classification was suggested in Grassland Vegetation of India: An Update, Manoj Chandran, Conservator of Forests, Land Survey Directorate, Uttarakhand Forest Department, Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India, Volume 17, ENVIS, Year 2015. (Click here to read original article)

• Coastal Grasslands
• Riverine Alluvial Grasslands
• Montane Grasslands
• Sub Himalayan Tall Grasslands of Terai Region
• Tropical Savannas
• Wet Grasslands

Click here to view the mind map of the Grassland Categorisation and its sub-categorisation from planning perspective.

Challenges Faced by Grasslands, Grazing Lands and Pastures

Several food grains such as wheat, corn, rice, and millets which are crucial for human survival are known to have originated in various grasslands and thus they also serve as important reservoir of crop gene pool. In addition, they form critical habitat for a variety of wild herbivores and other faunal groups for their breeding, migration and wintering. Owing to steady increase in human and livestock populations during last few decades, abrupt changes in land use practices, and transformation of traditional pastoral practices, most of the grasslands in the Asia-pacific region are degrading rapidly with far reaching consequences such as loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, decline in quality and quantity of forage species, loss of pastoral livelihoods, and desertification.

Although grasses have wide ecological amplitude and several adaptations to withstand trampling, grazing, fire, flood and drought, they face severe competition for light and nutrients from aggressive woody species and alien invasive plants. The nutrient rich sites such as relocated villages, abandoned agricultural fields and stream courses are particularly prone to invasion by woody species and easily transform into woodlands and dense thickets of unpalatable shrubs and opportunistic herbs. In many parts of central and south India overgrazing by domestic livestock, mining, windfarms, plantations, canals and dams have led to degradation and loss of grassland habitats. (Click here to read Ecology and Management of Grassland Habitats in India, Volume 17, ENVIS, Year 2015)

In the food web, herbivores are established to play an important role in maintaining the ecological health of an ecosystem by consuming a sizeable quantity of available vegetation. With the evolution of biodiversity conservation theory, grazing and browsing of herbivores has been treated as an unsustainable practice for long-term conservation of wild flora. As a result, livestock grazing has been stopped in the protected areas, especially in the National Parks. However, after the ban on livestock grazing, chaos has been observed mainly due to violation of rights of local pastoral communities, and diverse sets of opinion on its impact on natural vegetation.

Resentment among forest dwellers (semi-arid, arid, tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, alpine, sub-alpine) over conservation policy of banning the livestock in protected areas has been observed in various government reports. One of the reasons for resentment is wastage of forage, as it is not being used wisely. In the tropical grasslands, grasses are burnt as this is one of the traditional practices of maintaining grasslands. This is done although the grassland can be used for livestock grazing.

Removal of livestock from grasslands also indicates establishing forests over a period due to secondary succession (if not burnt), harvested, and eradicated by some mechanical ways. The fear of grasslands becoming endangered due to invasion by trees if not maintained mechanically, is widespread across the globe.

Considering the importance of grasslands, livestock grazing practices and joint natural resources management along with eco-development concepts, there is an urgent need to focus on a strong and viable grazing policy for livestock grazing, and ecosystem and environment management. (Click here to read more)

Grasslands and deserts are the most neglected ecosystems by the Ministry of Environment and Forests which looks after biodiversity conservation in India. Protection, development and sustainable use of grasslands are especially important for the rural economy and livestock. India has more than 500 million livestock, more than 50 per cent of the fodder for this livestock comes from grasslands. Many natural grasslands have been converted to plantations, sometimes even in Protected Areas. Some of the most threatened species of wildlife are found in the grasslands and deserts (e.g. Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican, Indian Rhinoceros, Snow Leopard, Nilgiris Tahr, Wild Buffalo etc). Despite the importance of grasslands and deserts for biodiversity conservation, livestock dependency and for poverty alleviation, we still do not have Grassland Development and Grazing Policy in place. (Click here to read the report of the Task Force on Grasslands and Desserts, Government of India, 2006)

Issues in Grassland Protection

In most states, grasslands are a purview of the State Forest Department and in some parts revenue department. But tend to be neglected by the State Forest Department, as their interests lie mainly in trees (partly due to pressures of maintaining forest and tree cover). The agriculture department is interested in agricultural crops, whereas the veterinary department is concerned with livestock, but not the grass on which the livestock is dependent. According to Revenue Department as well as Rural Development and Panchayati Raj Departments, grasslands are the ‘village commons’ land of and for the community.

This essentially means that grasslands, the most productive ecosystems in the sub-continent, belong to all, but are controlled by none, and they have no godfathers.

The report of the Task Force on Grasslands and Deserts, Government of India, 2006 further observes the following:

‘Grasslands remain unprotected unless they are notified as Protected Areas under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 or notified as Protected or Reserve Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Most of the States have excluded the grasslands and have not identified them as ‘deemed forest’ by the State Expert Committee’s pursuant to the landmark order dated 12.12.1996 in the Forest Matter (T. N. Godavarman Thriumalpad V. Union of India and others in W.P. (C) No. 202/95). As per the said order of 12.12.1996, word ‘forest’ should be given a wide and liberal interpretation. Excluding grasslands and including lands only with tree cover as ‘forest’ is against the letter and spirit of the said order thereby denying the protection under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (F. C. Act). In view of the fact that the grasslands have spontaneous natural vegetative growth, these should also be treated as ‘forest land’ for the purposes of the Forest Conservation Act and restrictions on diversion of such lands for non-forest use should be applicable to these critical ecosystems as well.’

Click here to read the report of the Task Force on Grasslands and Desserts, Government of India, 2006

Water Bodies

Increasing population and development is putting immense pressure on Indian Water resources, (the most important natural resources for supporting life). India receives an average annual precipitation (including snowfall) of about 4000 Billion Cubic Meter (bcm). However, there are extensive spatial and temporal variations in its distribution and hence in availability of water in time and space across the country. It is estimated that out of the estimated 4000bcm of water, 1869 bcm is the average annual potential flow in rivers available as water resource. The total utilisable water is only 1123bcm (690bcm from surface water resources and 433bcm from ground water resources). The water demand is estimated to be 1093bcm by the year 2025. Due to rapid rise in population and growing economy of the country, there will be continuous increase in demand for water, and it will become scarce in the coming decades.

The challenges of Water Sector

The water sector is challenged by an increasing water demand and falling per capita availability, unacceptable levels of water use and energy efficiency, deterioration of water quality, reduction or deterioration of available resources (loss of surface storage), increasing competition/conflict within sectors, under and inefficient utilisation of irrigation potential, over exploitation and depletion of ground water resources, water-logging and soil salinity in irrigated lands, fragmentation of management of water/ management of shared resources, lack of spatial inventory for large number of water infrastructure, currently used water resources potential estimates are old, significant change in land use/land cover, demographic and utilisation pattern in past few decades.

Access to water, and its allocation and use, are critical concerns that often leads to conflict. Water related tensions occurs when water is scarce, but even when the resource is not severely limited, its allocation and use (physical and economic scarcity) can still be hotly contested. The coexistence of a variety of uses and users – such as agriculture, industry, different clans or ethnic groups, and rural and urban users – increases the likelihood of conflicting interests over water.

According to Forum for Policy Dialogue on Water Conflicts in India, February 2012 (Click here to read more), part of the cause of water conflicts owe to the specific nature of water as a resource. For example

• Water is divisible and amenable to sharing
• Contrarily, it is a common pool resource so that a unit of water used by someone is a unit denied to others
• It has multiple uses and users and involves resultant trade-offs
• Excludability is an inherent problem and inclusion costs involved are often extremely high
• It requires a consideration and understanding of nested expanding scales and boundaries from the local watershed to inter-basin transfers
• The way water is planned, used and managed causes externalities – both positive and negative, and many of them are unidirectional and asymmetric.

Water is an essential component of national and local economies and is needed to create and maintain jobs across all sectors of the economy. Half of the global workforce is employed in eight water and natural resource dependent industries: agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, resource intensive manufacturing, recycling, building and transport. Sustainable water management, water infrastructure and access to a safe, reliable and affordable supply of water and adequate sanitation services improve living standards, expand local economies, and lead to the creation of more decent jobs and greater social inclusion. Sustainable water management is also an essential driver of green growth and sustainable development. (Click here to read Water and Jobs, The United Nations World Water Development Report, 2016)

Watershed Management and Land Use Planning

A watershed, or catchment area, is the area of land where all water that drains off it or flows beneath it drains into a single point or body of water. Watersheds can vary in size from a few hectares of land to thousands of square kilometres. Watershed management is the integrated use of land, vegetation, and water resources that harmonises actions between upstream and downstream areas to raise agricultural productivity, increase rural incomes, and rejuvenate the natural resource base.

Satellite images taken at regular intervals can provide accurate thematic data – such as land use and land cover, groundwater prospects, soil characteristics etc. – for large catchments as well as micro-watersheds. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) fusing this spatial data with non-spatial data such as rainfall, literacy etc. immensely helps technical experts and communities to prioritise works and develop comprehensive action plans for each micro-watershed.

Thematic resource maps depicting land use and land cover showing the area under agriculture, forests, wasteland, and location of settlements when merged with other maps depicting soil health profiles, groundwater profiles, location of water bodies, contours etc. can help prioritise areas for developing comprehensive integrated sustainable action plans for each micro-watershed with far reaching benefits.

Click here to read Innovations in Development – Karnataka Watershed Development Project: Using Satellite Imagery to Develop Land and Water Resources, The World Bank in India, Antrix Corporation and Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka, 2011.

Water Bodies as a Land Use

Interestingly, in spite of water being one of the most important natural resources, and with about 71 per cent of earth’s surface covered with water, and India on the verge of a water crisis, waterbodies are not considered as a land use category in regional planning in India.

Click here to access the mind map for water bodies as an attempt towards understanding possible subcategorization for water as a land use category.

Agriculture

The agriculture and allied sector play a pivotal role in sustainable growth and development of the Indian economy. It is expected to meet the food and nutritional requirements of 1.3 billion Indians, contribute to employment and production along with generating impetus for various backward and forward linkages. The role of agricultural sector in alleviating poverty and in ensuring sustainable development of the economy is well established.

While it has made large strides in achieving the agricultural development goals of food security, availability and accessibility, it is still being challenged by a formidable agrarian crisis. This situation has recently led to fresh thinking on the developmental approach in the agriculture sector.

The share and growth of the agriculture and allied sector at the state level presents a vastly different picture from that at the national level. While at the national level, the agriculture and allied sectors contributed about 14 per cent to the GDP in 2013-14 (at constant 2004-05 prices), several states show a much larger share of agriculture in GSDP. About 13 states earn over 20 per cent of their GSDP from agriculture, whereas only seven states earn less than 15 per cent of their GSDP through agriculture. Tamil Nadu being one of those seven.

Climate change has been increasingly pressurising agriculture development strategy to incorporate climatic resilience, technological interventions, and changes in farm practices and diversification in cropping patterns for achieving sustainable agricultural growth. (Click here to read The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), 2014)

Green Revolution provided the much needed food security to the vast population of the Indian Nation but in spite of being one of the top producers of almost all agricultural commodities, the productivity is still very low compared to many other countries in the world. The fatigue in the post-green revolution era has now attained serious dimensions. For achieving the required production targets to feed more than 1.5 billion in 2050, it is imperative to develop strategies that can sustain higher levels of production without an adverse effect on the environment. In order to maximise the production from the available resources and prevailing climatic conditions, need-based, location specific technology needs to be generated. Delineation of agro-climatic zones based on soil, water, rainfall, temperature etc.

Projects of world banks on water shed management in Karnataka undertaken with support from Antrix Corporation (ISRO) has proved how an integrated approach with considerations to land use, river-basins and watersheds, contours, soil health profiles, groundwater profiles, location of water bodies, etc. can result in far reaching benefits in agricultural productivity. (Click here to read more)

Agriculture Land Use Classification

The Agriculture departments in various states have been maintaining statistics for long under a nine-fold classification as prescribed by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Five of these nine categories are related to agriculture, one for forests, grazing & pasture lands, one for wasteland and one for all other non-agricultural land uses.

The total geographical area considered in statistics is the latest figures of geographical area of the State/Union Territories are those provided by the Office of the Surveyor General of India. Whereas the reporting area for land utilisation statistics stands for the area for which data on land use classification of area are available. In areas where land utilisation figures are based on land records, reporting area is the area according to village papers, in cases when the papers are not maintain in respect of entire area (e.g. forest area or paper does not exist) adhoc estimates of classification of area are derived to complete the coverage.

Following are some of the key terminologies used in the said classification

• Net Sown Area
• Current Fallow
• Fallow other than Current Fallow
• Land under Miscellaneous Trees and Crops not included in Net Sown Area
• Culturable Waste Land
• Forests
• Permanent Pasture and Grazing Land
• Barren and Un-culturable Land
• Area put to Non-Agricultural Uses
• Total Cultivated Area
• Irrigated Area
• Net Irrigated Area
• Gross Irrigated Area
• Net Un-Irrigated Area
• Gross Un-Irrigated Area
• Total Agricultural / Cultivable / Culturable Area
• Cropping Pattern The cropping pattern can be single cropping, multi-cropping and mix cropping. The crops may further be classified as food crops and non-food crops

Click here to access the mind map for categorisation under agriculture as a land use category)

Agro-Climatic Zones

A total of 127 agro-climatic zones have been identified in India under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) based on a comprehensive research review of each state. While delineating zonal boundaries the physiographic divisions of each of the state, its rainfall pattern, soil type, availability of irrigation water, existing cropping pattern and administrative units have been considered in such a manner that there are fewer variations on the parameters within a zone. The delineation of zonal boundary of the NARP in mostly in terms of districts and in some cases talukas/tehsils or subdivisions have also been considered substantial.

(Click here and here to read more)

Industries

Industries, as a sector is complex in nature. The sector drives growth and forms the base of economy in most states of India. On one hand we have the individual manufacturing units (industrial units) at the same time these units tend to setup base in vicinity to each other leading to creation of industrial areas. The industrial areas may be promoted by the government to guide industrial development, and at the same time they can be an organic growth or clustering of industrial units.

In context of regional level spatial planning, individual industrial units may not be representable on a spatial plan, whereas development of clusters, group of industries, or an industrial park is more likely to find a place in the industrial policy of a state. None the less, it is important to understand the various classifications of industrial units in order to understand the sub-categorisation of industrial areas.

Industrial Units

The industrial units may be classified based on various parameters. An individual unit may be classifiable in more than one these parameters. The parameters include:

• Labour and Investment
• Ownership
• Product Groups
• Pollution Load
• Miscellaneous (village, cottage, consumer, ancillary, basic, capital intensive, labour intensive etc.)

Industrial Areas

• The industrial areas may be further classified as:
• Industrial Corridors
• Special Investment Regions
• Special Economic Zones
• Industrial Clusters
• Industrial Estates and Parks

It is important to note that the industrial clusters have transitioned to stabilised consortium approach adopted by Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). MSMEs that were earlier facing difficulties in achieving economies of scale, specialisation and innovation due to their small size, are being benefited by combining advantages of running a small unit with the benefits of scale and specialisation provided by large units. There are more than 600 Industrial SME clusters and over 7000 artisan/micro enterprising clusters in India. There are about 2500 untapped/emerging rural clusters in India. Some of the clusters are so large that they account for almost about 80 per cent of the production of select products within India.

Click here to access the mind map for a detailed categorisation of Industries as a unit as well as a land use category)

Mines

Mines is a contentious land use. Mineral deposits are naturally located, they can be extracted only at the locations where they are found. This results in frequent conflicts with almost all other land uses like forests and protected areas, waterbodies (due to pollution), agriculture due to impact on soil health, water pollution and allocation, tourism and other service industries, settlements as they result in their formation and expansion and at the same time result in pollution.

Generally mining is a specialised activity and mineral resources are limited and require high investments and require technology that can be acquired by either government or specialised firms. It is for this reason, that mining is a licenced activity. Mostly the mining licences are issued by a specialised department (Department of Mines in most states).

However, the construction industry also requires a large amount of natural resources like sand, gypsum, stones, etc. which are relatively easy to extract and may not need specialised technology or large investments. Further, the abundant availability of the same means that many firms are undertaking operational mining activities at a smaller scale. Some states have vested the licencing authority for such low value minerals with the revenue departments of the state.

The Department of Mines, however, remains responsible for identifying mineral deposits and study the commercial viability of extracting the same, and recommend the method/technology for extraction of the same. The Department of Mines are required to prepare and submit a mining operation plan as well as end of live mining closure plan with spatial aspects for approval from Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change as well as Ministry of Mines at national level.

In view of above, to standardise the mining industry practices, India accepts the United Nations Framework Classification on Fossil Energy, Mineral Reserves and Resources 2009.

UNFC on Fossil Energy, Mineral Reserves and Resources 2009

The UNFC framework advocates the classification of mineral reserves and resources along the concept of three axis.

• E-Axis – Designates the degree of favourability of social and economic conditions in establishing commercial viability of the project including consideration of market prices and relevant legal, regulatory, environmental and contractual conditions
• F-Axis – Designates maturity of studies and commitments necessary to implement mining plans or development projects. These extend from early exploration efforts before a deposit or accumulation has been confirmed to exist through a project that is extracting and selling a commodity and reflect the standard value chain management principles
• G-Axis – Designates the level of confidence in the geological knowledge and potential recoverability of quantities.

These are further subdivided into their own sub-categories (Click here to read more).

However, as mining activities have a distinct impact on environment and surrounding habitation, the technology employed for extraction of mines (surface mining and/or sub surface mining) may end up as one of the prime reasons of any potential conflict while planning other sectors and land uses.

Click here to access the mind map for the categorisation of Mines from UNFC framework perspective as well as extraction technology perspective)

Infrastructure

Infrastructure is one of the most important factors for development. It regularly finds mention in specific plans in terms of transport network, power plants and transmission lines, industrial infrastructure, education and health infrastructure. However, being virtually invisible at smaller scales, it seldom gets a representation in land use plans at regional level.

Infrastructure is broadly classified in terms of physical infrastructure (roads, railways, airports, power plants etc.) and social infrastructure (education, health, sports, recreation etc.). It is important to note that social infrastructure is predominantly a function within settlements, even though it has a hierarchy in regional terms. Whereas the regional hierarchy of physical infrastructure is visible at regional levels beyond settlements boundaries. It is with this understanding that this section focuses on infrastructure as a land use in terms of physical infrastructure, which has a greater potential of influencing development and direction of growth of settlements and economy. The social infrastructure aspects can be captured as part of the settlements.

Click here to access the mind map for detailed categorisation of Infrastructure in terms of roads, airports, ports, inland waterways, railways, other logistics facilities, and power)

Settlements

Traditionally, planning started in settlement areas, when the agrarian settlements started becoming larger and the broad basing of economy led to urbanisation of settlements. Hence, the definitions of the land use within settlements are well accepted. The Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation Guidelines (URDPFI guidelines) provide for a detailed breakup of land use categories for urban areas, which is generally acceptable by all states of India and adopted with minor modification on case to case basis. (Click here to access URDPFI guidelines)

Emphasises must be on the fact that at regional level of planning, it is highly unlikely that the subcategories of urban or rural settlements are visible on a map at the selected scale. Nonetheless, they would be important in terms of upward and downward linkages in terms of master plans and detailed local area plans. In a plan at regional level or state spatial strategy level, the envisaged categories would essentially include Urban settlements, rural settlements and urbanisable areas.

Hence, this section details out the subcategory and attempts to link each smaller land use as a function of larger aspect viz.

• Rural Settlement: Simplest form of a settlement with least number of components
• Urbanisable Settlements/Settlement Expansion: These settlements reflect rural character with certain traits of urban settlements. They are more complex than rural settlements but less complex than urban settlements
• Urban Settlement: Most complex form of settlement, any component as reflected in the lower level hierarchy would be part of this level. All component as mentioned in the urban settlements may not be part of all urban settlements (smaller towns), however, as the town grows and start getting converted to important urban centres/cities, the list of components keeps increasing.

Click here to look at the mind map for settlement categories and relationships in terms of hierarchy and land uses like residential, commercial, mix of residential and commercial, industrial, recreational, public and semi-public uses, public utilities and facilities and miscellaneous classifications like ecosystem service area, waste land and agriculture etc.

Wasteland

Availability of a reliable database on the wastelands of the country is pre-requisite before embarking upon planning strategies for their development. Information on the extent, nature and location wastelands helps in designing interventions targeted at the resource-poor sections of the rural population. In India, Department of Land Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) has undertaken a study jointly with National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), a part of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) for carrying out the mapping of wastelands in entire country in phases, using remote sensing technology.

The results of study were published in ‘Wastelands Atlas of India 2010’. As per this study, the spatial extent of wastelands was estimated at 47.22 million hectares, constituting 14.91 per cent of total geographic area of the country. Classification system of 23 categories of wastelands and three-season satellite data was adopted in the Wasteland Atlas 2010.

Recently, Wastelands Atlas of India 2019 was released. (Click here to access the Wastelands Atlas of India)

It is important to note that the categories as mentioned in waste land atlas can be easily categories into rest of the land uses as mentioned above. It is envisaged that once the planning of wastelands is undertaken, the entire areas categorised as wasteland as on date in the country would be allocated to a more relevant categorisation of land use.

Click here to access the mind map for definitions and categorisation of wastelands in India as per the Wasteland Atlas of India.

Now that we have understood the Land Use Categories, should we investigate the Land Use Statistics? Click here to read on.